p. 758, Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Ahmad Zarruq was one of the most famous Islamic scholars to settle in Libya, and did so during this time. The Iranian government is authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant constraints and abuses against human rights and civil liberties,[32][33][34][35] including several violent suppressions of mass protests, unfair elections, and limited rights for women and for children. Although many left in the wake of the establishment of the State of Israel and the 1979 Revolution, about 8,756[426] to 25,000[427] Jewish people live in Iran. [46][unreliable fringe source?] Others include speakers of several other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran. In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics. Owing to its geopolitical position, Iran has influenced cultures as far as Greece and Italy to the west, Russia to the north, the Arabian Peninsula to the south, and south and east Asia to the east. The monks fortified their new monasteries, and the most fortified of them is still in use today, Saint Catherine's Monastery, built by the commission of emperor Justinian in 565. Iraq repeatedly bombed Iran's main oil export facility on Kharg Island, causing increasingly heavy damage. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. Find stories, updates and expert opinion. [86], The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in Babylon,[87] building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic, throughout its territories. The "Arab Christian" label largely belongs to followers of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Maronite Church and Oriental Orthodox Churches, though there are also adherents to other churches, including Latin Catholic Church and Protestant Churches. 4. Over the next two centuries, a series of native Iranian Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuk Turks and the Mongols conquered the region. [198] Rafsanjani ordered a last desperate counter-attack into Iraq, which was launched 13 June 1988. [269] Socio-economically, Arab Christians are closer to the Jewish population than to the Muslim population. The art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, stonemasonry, metalworking, weaving, pottery, painting, and calligraphy. [198] 400 Iraqi soldiers and 50,000100,000 Kurdish civilians and soldiers had been killed. [222] Saddam realized that if Iran attempted to expel the Iraqis from the disputed territories in the border area, it was likely they would succeed. They then set up a pontoon bridge and continued the attack, eventually capturing the island in a costly success but failing to advance further; the Iranians had 60,000 casualties, while the Iraqis 9,500. 4. Regular army troops, the paramilitary Revolutionary Guards and mullahs all lauded these youths, known as baseeji [Basij], for having played the most dangerous role in breaking through Iraqi lines. [253] China, which had no direct stake in the victory of either side and whose interests in the war were entirely commercial, freely sold arms to both sides. banks, insurance companies, schools, tourism, hospitals etc. Another instance is when Khamenei indirectly called Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani a traitor for a statement he made, causing Rafsanjani to retract it. [198] On 31 July, Iran drove the MEK out of Qasr-e-Shirin and Sarpol Zahab, though MEK claimed to have "voluntarily withdrawn" from the towns. In total, 10,00011,000 civilians died as a result of the aerial bombardment of Iranian cities with the majority of those deaths occurring in the final year of the war. [31] 'Yan Kala Kato is often mistaken for a militant group called Yan Tatsine (also known as Maitatsine), an unrelated group founded by Muhammadu Marwa. [93] Iraq had mobilised 21 divisions for the invasion, while Iran countered with only 13 regular army divisions and one brigade. [93] Iraq also began launching air raids against Iranian border cities, greatly increasing the practice by 1984. [93] A new round of heavy fighting took place. [113] It was during this stage that the first compound of the Arabic language was introduced along with the printing of it in letters, and later the movement influenced the fields of music, sculpture, history, humanities, economics and human rights. Eid al-Fitr (/ i d l f t r,-t r /; Arabic: , romanized: Eid al-Fir, lit. [292], In response to further Iraqi chemical attacks on Kurdish civilians after the August 1988 ceasefire with Iran, United States senators Claiborne Pell and Jesse Helms called for comprehensive economic sanctions against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of dual-use technology. Tripolitania was a major exporter of olive oil,[13] as well as a center for the trade of ivory and wild animals[13] conveyed to the coast by the Garamantes, while Cyrenaica remained an important source of wines, drugs, and horses. [199] By 1987, draft-dodging had become a serious problem, and the Revolutionary Guards and police set up roadblocks throughout cities to capture those who tried to evade conscription. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the Sassanid Empire, a major world power for the next four centuries. [27], Saudis decorate their homes and prepare sumptuous meals for family and friends. These peoples were [46], In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Eid al-Fitr is locally known as Ramazanski bajram. El-Keib formed a provisional government, filling it with independent or CNT politicians, including women. Following Iran's success of repelling the Iraqi invasion and Khomeini's refusal to end the war in 1982, the United States made an outreach to Iraq, beginning with the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1984. Those who refused war and refused to convert were deemed to have agreed to pay jizya. [27]:119,198199 The Soviet Union hoped to use the threat of reducing arms supplies to Iraq as leverage for forming a Soviet-Iranian alliance. [8] Ptolemy Apion, the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BCE and joined it to Crete as a Roman province. [83] The roving groups of singers will take the tunes of popular Hindi movie songs, replaced with Burmese lyrics and invocations about fasting, the principles of Islam, and the benefits of Salat. [88][97] Various traditional sweet delicacies of the different Muslim Filipino ethnic groups are served for breakfast, including daral, dodol, browas, tinagtag, panyalam, jampok, and so on. During Fatimid rule, Tripoli thrived on the trade in slaves and gold brought from the Sudan and on the sale of wool, leather, and salt shipped from its docks to Italy in exchange for wood and iron goods. The subsequent Iranian offensive within Iraqi territory lasted for five years,[81] with Iraq taking back the initiative in mid-1988 and subsequently launching a series of major counter-offensives that ultimately led to the conclusion of the war in a stalemate.[82][70]. Whether or not Iraqi leadership authorised the attack is still unknown. Turkey's export market jumped from $220million in 1981 to $2billion in 1985, making up 25% of Turkey's overall exports. [448] Although of unclear development,[449] Sasanian art was highly influential, and spread into far regions. Iran had a complex clandestine procurement network to obtain munitions and critical materials. The older women while applying it too, dont do very complicated designs. [39], In Iraq, kleicha (the traditional snack)[40] and lamb are popular foods. Due to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy of Iran was flooded with foreign currency, which caused inflation. The boys and young men in some communities might apply it as well but, with very simple designs like a circle in their palms or just coloring the fingertips. [93] However, on 24 September, the Iranian Navy attacked Basra, Iraq, destroying two oil terminals near the Iraqi port Al-Faw, which reduced Iraq's ability to export oil. Censorship in Iran under the government of the Islamic Republic was ranked among the most extreme worldwide. [478] The use of both vertical and horizontal angular harps have been documented at the sites Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. [173] Civilian areas were also hit, resulting in many casualties. [127], Though Khorramshahr was finally captured, the battle had delayed the Iraqis enough to allow the large-scale deployment of the Iranian military. [214] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38C (100.4F). The Arab nationalism they supported did not discriminate according to religion and was therefore also acceptable to them. [120]:260, In addition, Iran's military power was weakened once again by large purges in 1982, resulting from another supposedly attempted coup. [189][190] The electoral victory of Rouhani relatively improved the relations of Iran with other countries. Find stories, updates and expert opinion. [26] Islam, like Christianity also found a common ground with the natives that believed in Supreme Being, while there were some areas of disagreements, Islamic teachers impressed upon their audience the need to change from worshipping idols and embrace Allah. [488] The oldest Iranian initiation of theater and the phenomena of acting can be traced in the ancient epic ceremonial theaters such as Sug-e Sivu ("mourning of Siva"), as well as dances and theater narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon. [90] The Iraqi high command had assumed that the marshlands above Basra were natural barriers to attack, and had not reinforced them. Iran's army had also reached the Meimak Hills, only 113km (70mi) from Baghdad. However, only 13km (8.1mi) from Basra, the poorly equipped Iranian forces were surrounded on three sides by Iraqis with heavy weaponry. ), Wakati i.e. [221] Iraqi losses were also revised downwards over time. Being a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[548] and mountain climbing. [92] Despite Iraq's goal of regaining the Shatt al-Arab[note 5], the Iraqi government initially seemed to welcome the Iranian Revolution, which overthrew Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was seen as a common enemy. by [110] In many places in the country master classes are also hosted where families take part in activities such as embroidery and clay making. Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, with both nations attacking oil tankers and merchant ships of neutral nations in an effort to deprive their opponent of trade. The traditional bamboo cannon, meriam buloh, and fireworks are notoriously loud and can be very dangerous to operator, bystander and even nearby buildings. [139] This became an increasingly common punishment for those who failed him in battle.[143]. They did so in March, and the U.S. Navy began Operation Earnest Will to escort the tankers. [566] Some of the officials themselves have verified accounts on the social networking websites that are blocked by the authorities, including Facebook and Twitter. On 5 January 1981, Iran had reorganised its forces enough to launch a large-scale offensive, Operation Nasr (Victory). Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%. They tweeted,[14] "I just saw a TV reporter pronouncing it as aloo akbar which literally translates to potatoes are the greatest" Within two days, the tweet (shown below) received more than 47,000 retweets and 139,000 likes. by The battle bogged down into a World War I-style stalemate in the marshes of the peninsula. [139] The Iranian Air Force could not survive further attrition, and decided to limit their losses, abandoning efforts to control Iranian airspace. [224] The reverberation of religious animosity between these communities still continues today, a testament to the machinations of power politics in the nation-building of the Middle East. [253], The Chief Justice of Iran is the head of the Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran and is responsible for its administration and supervision. The fusion of the Arab nobility with the subject races, the practice of polygamy and concubinage, made for a social amalgam wherein loyalties became uncertain and a hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good. [88][89][90], Its beginning is decided by the sighting of the crescent moon (hilal), followed by morning prayers in mosques or public plazas. Key areas, such as supply lines, command posts, and ammunition depots, were hit by a storm of mustard gas and nerve gas, as well as by conventional explosives. It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days. Mousa noted that were many books written to praise Lawrence, and all of them exaggerated his part in the Arab Revolt and failed to do justice to the Arabs themselves. [93] Thousands of left-wing Iranians (many of whom were not associated with the MEK) were shot and hanged by the government. The number of Arab bishops among the Nabataeans alone reached forty according to Ibn Duraid. These events became known as the "War of the Cities". [143] The Iranians launched an amphibious assault against the Iraqi island of Umm al-Rassas in the Shatt-Al-Arab river, parallel to Khoramshahr. [252], The United States pursued policies in favour of Iraq by reopening diplomatic channels, lifting restrictions on the export of dual-use technology, overseeing the transfer of third-party military hardware, and providing operational intelligence on the battlefield. [201] They replenished their manpower by integrating volunteers from other Arab countries into their army. [211] The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. [113], The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art of Iran became major elements in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization, during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age. Nearly 1,000 were killed in the clashes. "[294], Iran's attack on the Osirak nuclear reactor in September 1980 was the first attack on a nuclear reactor and one of only a small handful of military attacks on nuclear facilities in history. Iranian commanders, however, remained more tactically skilled. [128], Iraq's strategic reserves had been depleted, and by now it lacked the power to go on any major offensives until nearly the end of the war. Diplomatic and Commercial Relationships with Iraq, 1980 2 August 1990", Chemical Weapons Use in Kurdistan: Iraq's Final Offensive, "U.S. Says It Monitored Iraqi Messages on Gas", "IRAN: Eyes on the Skies Over Bushehr Nuclear Reactor", "Osiraq: Iraq Special Weapons Facilities", "Preventive Attacks Against Nuclear Programs and the "Success" at Osiraq", "Osirak Redux? Ruhollah Khomeini(Supreme Leader of Iran), Start of war:[48] [84][85] The empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world's population, the highest such figure for any empire in history. Because the Hijri year differs by about 11 days from the AD year, Eid al Fitr can occur twice a year, in the year 1023, 1055, 1088, 1120, 1153, 1186, 1218, 1251, 1283, 1316, 1348, 1381, 1414, 1446, 1479, 1512, 1544, 1577, 1609, 1642, 1674, 1707, 1740, 1772, 1805, 1837, 1870, 1902, 1935, 1968, 2000, 2033, 2065, 2098, 2131, 2163, 2196, 2228, 2261 and 2293 (will continue to occur every 32 or 33 years). [227] The Iraqi government also commemorated the war with various monuments, including the Hands of Victory and the al-Shaheed Monument, both in Baghdad. Like other South Asian countries, Lachcha semai (Vermicelli) are served with Roti or Paratha or Luchi as breakfast in Bangladesh. Iraq got permission from the Saudi government to use its airspace to attack Larak Island, although due to the distance attacks were less frequent there. Iran managed to shoot down 30 Iraqi fighters with fighter jets, anti-aircraft guns, and missiles, allowing the Iranian air force to survive to the end of the war. Allah's (God's) name must be pronounced at the time of slaughter (Bismillah Allahu Akbar). From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors. [109][110][111] In their struggle for power, the society in their times gradually became cosmopolitan and the old Arab simplicity and aristocratic dignity, bearing and prestige were lost. The IranIraq war had been going on for three years and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching hundreds of thousands. [61] On the organizational level, the Archbishop of Yemen held the title "Catholicos" which follows the "Patriarch" in rank. [152] France sold Iraq millions of dollars worth of weapons, including Gazelle helicopters, Mirage F-1 fighters, and Exocet missiles. Both the United States and Iran jockeyed for influence in the Gulf. [233] Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader. [265] The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was also higher among the Christian Arab students, compared with all the students from other sectors. A notable Berber Christian of Algeria was Saint Augustine (and his mother Saint Monica), important saints in Christianity. Killing instrument must be very sharp so as to not cause undue pain to the animals. The Nigeria-born Muslim scholar Sheikh Dr. Abu-Abdullah Abdul-Fattah Adelabu has argued that Islam had reached Sub-Sahara Africa, including Nigeria, as early as the 1st century of Hijrah through Muslim traders and expeditions during the reign of the Arab conqueror, Uqba ibn al Nafia (622683), whose Islamic conquests under the Umayyad dynasty, during Muawiyah's and Yazid's time, spread all Northern Africa or the Maghrib Al-Arabi, which includes present-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Morocco. Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. (Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1967), pp. 913 943 For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were in Akbar's time until disputes arose again. [233], The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Supreme Leader, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. [103][104] Iraqi military intelligence reported in July 1980 that despite Iran's bellicose rhetoric, "it is clear that, at present, Iran has no power to launch wide offensive operations against Iraq, or to defend on a large scale. [21], After a successful invasion by the Habsburgs of Spain in the early 16th century, Charles V entrusted its defense to the Knights of St. John in Malta. [60][61][62][63][217][218][219], Both Iraq and Iran manipulated loss figures to suit their purposes. [83] There were a number of proxy forces operating for both countries: Iraq and the pro-Iraqi Arab separatist militias in Iran were most notably supported by the National Council of Resistance of Iran; whereas Iran re-established an alliance with the Iraqi Kurds, being primarily supported by the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan. [8][9] The Romans completed the conquest of the region under Augustus, occupying northern Fezzan ("Fasania") with Cornelius Balbus Minor. It subsequently became a major center of Islamic culture and learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age. [167], During Operation Dawn-2, the Iranians directed insurgency operations by proxy in April 1983 by supporting the Kurds in the north. The final claim tally was 10 SeaCobras and 6 Mi-25s destroyed. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, as well as the wider group of Iranian Arabs. [359][360] It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter, and is an energy superpower. It covers an area of 1.64 million square [93], Of Iraq's six divisions that invaded by ground, four were sent to Khuzestan, which was located near the border's southern end, to cut off the Shatt al-Arab[note 5] from the rest of Iran and to establish a territorial security zone. [114] The defeats at al-Faw and in the Persian Gulf nudged Iranian leadership towards quitting the war, especially when facing the prospect of fighting the Americans. It is enjoyed by people adhering to different religions, but is considered a holiday for the Zoroastrians. [178], On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded the western Iranian province of Khuzestan, initiating the IranIraq War. It could be Monday or Tuesday, it might be Sunday", "Eid al-Fitr 2019: Everything you need to know", "Shawwal: On Eid Night, Eid Day, and During the Month", "What is Eid al-Fitr and how do Muslims celebrate it? J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, Country Information and Guidance "Christians and Christian converts, Iran" December 2014. p.9, harv error: no target: CITEREFLawergren2009 (, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsProduction, National Anthem of the Islamic Republic of Iran, numerous ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups, Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, social conflict within the Sasanian Empire, Ottoman perpetrated anti-Christian genocides, Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned, purging itself of the non-Islamist political opposition, took the embassy with 52 personnel and citizens hostage, negotiate for the release of the hostages, invaded the western Iranian province of Khuzestan, assassinated by the United States in Iraq, existing tensions between the two countries, Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, International Union for Conservation of Nature, one of the world's largest shopping malls, Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran, U.S. recognition of Jerusalem as capital of Israel, international sanctions against the country, Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War, Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the government's subsidization of the price of gasoline, Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Ancient philosophy Ancient Iranian philosophy, Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022", "GDP per capita (current US$) - Iran, Islamic Rep. | Data", British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin, "Encyclopdia Britannica Encyclopedia Article: Media ancient region, Iran", "2018 will go down in history as a year of shame for Iran", "Nasrin Sotoudeh sentenced to 33 years and 148 lashes in Iran", "Iran's Strategy in the Strait of Hormuz", "Iran's president: New oil field found with over 50B barrels", Ashrafi Nader Afshar Type A2; irz mint, "This day in history, March 21: Social media website Twitter established with the sending of the first 'tweet' by co-founder Jack Dorsey", "Persia Changes Its Name; To Be 'Iran' From Mar. 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[309] Iran has not vocalized the desire for these reparations in recent years, and has even suggested forms of financial aid. [48], From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa,[49] while the Human Development Index became the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia. [287], At his trial in December 2006, Saddam said he would take responsibility "with honour" for any attacks on Iran using conventional or chemical weapons during the war, but that he took issue with the charges that he ordered attacks on Iraqis. [162][163], In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was appointed as the Prime Minister of Pahlavi Iran. [114][124], After the Iraqi offensive stalled in March 1981, there was little change in the front other than Iran retaking the high ground above Susangerd in May. [28] Emigrants from Arab Christian communities also make up a significant proportion of the Middle Eastern diaspora, with sizable population concentrations across the Americas, most notably in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, and the US. Land disputes include the sale of St. John's property in the Christian quarter, the transfer of fifty dunams near Mar Elias Monastery, and the sale of two hotels and twenty-seven stores on Omar Bin Al-Khattab square near the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Good, Fine Or Healthy from derivative Al-Aafiah (Ar. 'i' Alongside the ancient Iranian celebrations, Islamic annual events such as Ramezn, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e ur are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel,[523] elle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pk[524] are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim,[525] Hanuk,[526] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)[527][528] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade[529] and Mehrgn are observed by the Zoroastrians. Their aggregate wealth was reckoned at one and a half billion francs, 10% of the Egyptian GDP at the end of the 20th century. [284] There are also smaller numbers who originally hail from Syria and Lebanon. In addition to modern Iran, it includes portions of the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. [80] Men, women and children dress in fine attire, while the preferred dress colour is white, symbolising the purity of the soul after a month of Ramadan. In the period preceding Nigeria's independence, political leaders desired Western-trained graduates to fill positions in government. [233] Some differences arise from religious differences, for example customs and traditions related to marriage or burial. Behind each waterway and defensive line was radar-guided artillery, ground attack aircraft and helicopters, all capable of firing poison gas or conventional munitions. Both the United States and West Germany sold Iraq dual-use pesticides and poisons that would be used to create chemical weapons[152] and other weapons, such as Roland missiles. [177] Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped with the falling popularity of Carter among the US citizens and it pushed him out of the presidential office and brought Ronald Reagan to power. Don. [68] The earliest indications of the presence of Christianity in Mecca is the Christian cemetery outside the Medina towards the well of 'Anbasa, confirmed by al-Maqdisi, as well as the conversion to Christianity by some members of the Quraish. By the late 1970s, many of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began organizing and joining the protests against it. [126] The Iraqis lost 45 T-55 and T-62 tanks, while the Iranians lost 100200 Chieftain and M-60 tanks. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo, some 6,300 people, sending them to Libya. [104] These media networks produce dozens of Arabic-language Christian films, musical works, as well as radio and television programmes. In Malaysia, especially in the major cities, people take turns to set aside a time for open house when they stay at home to receive and entertain neighbours, family and other visitors. [213], To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. Iraq continued to attack oil tankers via air. These teachers were well versed in Arabic and were influenced by the knowledge and traditions passed down from medieval Timbuktu and from other West African Islamic texts. According to Foreign Policy, the "Iraqis used mustard gas and sarin prior to four major offensives in early 1988 that relied on U.S. satellite imagery, maps, and other intelligence. The inscriptions record Berber tribes raiding the Nile Delta. [90][175] All of these almost certainly helped increase the effectiveness of Iran, although it did not reduce the human cost of their attacks. [302] Both sides, especially Iraq, also carried out air and missile attacks against population centres. [27]:185,187,188,192193, Iraq also made extensive use of front companies, middlemen, secret ownership of all or part of companies all over the world, forged end-user certificates, and other methods to hide what it was acquiring. [304] Some Arab Christians who remained living as crypto-Christians. [174] Iranian ground air defense still shot down many Iraqi aircraft. A protest started against the new regime of NTC. The revenue from oil dropped from $20billion in 1982 to $5billion in 1988. [90] At the same time, Iraq was experiencing crushing debt and shortages of workers, encouraging its leadership to try to end the war quickly. [562] Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official language. State Bank of Pakistan issues fresh currency notes every year for this purpose. Reza Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly surrendered. Iran was constrained by the price of oil during the 1980s oil glut as foreign countries were largely unwilling to extend credit to Iran, but Iraq financed its continued massive military expansion by taking on vast quantities of debt that allowed it to win a number of victories against Iran near the end of the war but that left the country bankrupt. [93]:23 On the northern front, the Iraqis attempted to establish a strong defensive position opposite Suleimaniya to protect the Iraqi Kirkuk oil complex. According to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, China was the largest foreign arms supplier to Iran between 1980 and 1988. [172] After a year of strikes and demonstrations paralyzing the country and its economy, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran in February 1979, forming a new government. [161] To foreign observers, it appeared that Iran was continuing to strengthen. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. [64][65][pageneeded] From the tenth to the seventh millennium BC, early agricultural communities began to flourish in and around the Zagros region in western Iran, including Chogha Golan,[66][67] Chogha Bonut,[68][69] and Chogha Mish. [51], The southern Arabian city of Najran was made famous by the religious persecution of Christians by one of the kings of Yemen, Dhu Nuwas, who was an enthusiastic convert to Judaism. The paper was Palestine's most consistent critic of the early Zionist movement. As the Muslim population is diverse, traditional festive dishes differ between regions for example in Tatarstan pancakes are popularly baked. [210] Today, due to both forced and accepted Arabization, many Chaldeans identify themselves situationally as Arabs. [167], Further Iranian attacks were mounted in the MandaliBaghdad north-central sector in April 1983, but were repelled by Iraqi mechanised and infantry divisions. Varieties of Kurdish are widely spoken in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. Iran was portrayed as the aggressor, and would be seen as such until the 19901991 Persian Gulf War, when Iraq would be condemned. The completion of the pre-university course earns students the Pre-University Certificate. [51], Eid es-Seghir is the name of Eid al-Fitr among Moroccans. [227] The region includes the oldest Christian monuments in addition to the liturgy and hymns that have spread since the second century AD throughout the region. [368] According to this report, Iranian government's expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP. [93] These purges resulted in a drastic decline in the Iranian military's operational capacities. The Iranians retreated back to the marshes, though they still held onto them along with Majnoon Island. Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, vol. [97], On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur stepped down[98] after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet. It has large reserves of fossil fuelsincluding the second-largest natural gas supply and the third-largest proven oil reserves. The Iranians responded with Scud missile attacks on Baghdad and struck a primary school there. The Army and Revolutionary Guards worked together better as their tactics improved. [93]:11 A statement from Khomeini was read out in a radio address, and he expressed deep displeasure and reluctance about accepting the ceasefire, Happy are those who have departed through martyrdom. Typically, an Iranian assault would commence with poorly trained Basij who would launch the primary human wave assaults to swamp the weakest portions of the Iraqi lines en masse (on some occasions even bodily clearing minefields). In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. [27]:251 The government responded with mass executions of suspected MEK members, a practice that lasted until 1985. [263], After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. [83] In Palestine, Najib Nassar's newspaper Al-Karmil was the first anti-Zionist weekly newspaper. [182] By the time of the 2009 Iranian presidential election, the Interior Ministry announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with 33.75%. [248][249], The Arab Christian community in Iraq is relatively small, and further dwindled due to the Iraq War to just several thousand. [58], Yemen had an important share in ancient Christianity. During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art,[96] which carried forward to the Islamic world, and much of what later became known as Islamic learningincluding medicine, architecture, philosophy, philology, and literaturewere of Sasanian basis. Following decisive Druze victories and massacres against the Christians, the conflict spilled over into other parts of Ottoman Syria, particularly Damascus, where thousands of Christian residents were killed by Druze and Muslim militiamen. The Syro-Lebanese Christians of Egypt were highly influenced by European culture and established churches, printing houses and businesses across Egypt. Arabic traders from Tiaret during the Rustamid dynasty were involved in commerce with Audoghast. [255][256][257][258] There have been instances when the current Supreme Leader publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. [26] Anyway, order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858. Nov 21, 2014 at 04:18PM EST [347] In the early 2000s, the industry faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, industry standards, and personnel training. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. However, the defeat at al-Faw led Saddam to declare the war to be Al-Defa al-Mutaharakha (The Dynamic Defense),[90][pageneeded] and announcing that all civilians had to take part in the war effort. Protesters frequently went out at night, defying the set curfew, often taking to rooftops and shouting "Allahu-akbar" ('God is great'). [80][83] The end of the conflict resulted in neither reparations nor border changes,[83] and the combined financial losses suffered by both combatants is believed to have exceeded US$1 trillion. "[83] Kanan Makiya writes that "there has not been anything like it in the long history of IraqiIranian relations, just like there had been nothing like World War I in the history of Europe. [113] Created to protect the new regime and serve as a counterbalance to the army, the Revolutionary Guards,[c] (IRGC) had been trained to act only as a militia and struggled to adapt as needed following the Iraqi invasion, initially refusing to fight alongside the regular army, resulting in many defeats. An estimated 200,000 fresh troops had arrived at the front by November, many of them ideologically committed volunteers. [43] In Nigeria, federal law criminalizes homosexual behaviour, but states with Sharia law imposed the death penalty. [128][149] During Operation Muharram (121 November),[note 8] the Iranians captured part of the Bayat oilfield with the help of their fighter jets and helicopters, destroying 105 Iraqi tanks, 70 APCs, and 7 planes with few losses. Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained de facto autonomy and were locally ruled through various Caucasian khanates. An Iraqi armored counter-attack surrounded the Basij in a pincer movement, but the Iranian tank divisions attacked, breaking the encirclement. [258] According to the Financial Times, Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, and Matrix Churchill's branch in Ohio were among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government. Likewise, al-Zamakhshari and al-Baydawi referred to this sect in their interpretation of the Quran. [301] After a lull in helicopter losses, each side lost a gunship on 13 February 1986. Published in Prophet Muhammad's Day Golden Jubilee magazine page 88, column 2 paragraph 2, Armijo, Jacqueline M. "East Asian culture and Islam. [90][152][91], During the course of the war, Iran attacked two Soviet merchant ships. [222], By 1990, Iran was undergoing military rearmament and reorganization, and purchased $10billion worth of heavy weaponry from the USSR and China, including aircraft, tanks, and missiles. Due to its variety of ethnic groups and the influences from the neighboring cultures, the cuisine of Iran is diverse. [140], In response, the Iranians deployed their F-4 Phantoms to combat the Iraqis, and eventually they deployed F-14s as well. [9], In the early 19th century, Islamic scholar Usman dan Fodio launched a jihad, which is called the Fulani War, against the Hausa Kingdoms of Northern Nigeria. They also invite close friends and relatives for the Eid dinner. The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist candidate, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, to power. [302] The decline of the Christian community in Palestine follows the trend of Christian emigration from the Muslim-dominated Middle East. [91] Together with their neighboring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, they made up the world's two most dominant powers at the time, for over four centuries. Palestinians and Jordanians, It has hosted a number of Church figures, notable bishops, theologians, Ghassanid and Lakhmid kings, and pre-Islamic poets. Luri and Lari are also spoken in southern Iran. [140], The Iranians suffered from a shortage of heavy weapons,[114]:225 but had a large number of devoted volunteer troops, so they began using human wave attacks against the Iraqis. Saddam's defensive barricade collapsed;[90] in less than 48 hours of fighting, the city fell and 19,000 Iraqis surrendered to the Iranians. Press The Iranians initiated a controlled withdrawal from the city, street by street. The United States is pulling in the opposite direction as they offer Iraq significant economic aid packages, along with military support in the form of air and artillery strikes, all in the hopes to establish a stable ally in the region. The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh. Some Hausa and Yoruba expressions and words are also influenced by Arabic, the language of the Koran. [233] The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader. [102] Nayif Hawatmeh is the founder and leader of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and Kamal Nasser and Hanan Ashrawi were members of the PLO Executive Committee. : 38 Of the opposing view was a hardline faction led by the clerics on the Supreme Defence Council, whose leader was the politically powerful speaker of the Majlis, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. The unsustainable economic situation compelled the new Iraqi government to request that a considerable portion of debt incurred during the IranIraq war be written off. [93] By 1 October, Baghdad had been subjected to eight air attacks. During Operation Dawn-1, in early February 1983, 50,000 Iranian forces attacked westward from Dezful and were confronted by 55,000 Iraqi forces. [220] Some members of the community also call themselves Melkite, which means "monarchists" or "supporters of the emperor" (a reference to their past allegiance to Macedonian and Roman imperial rule) although in the modern era, that term tends to be more commonly used by followers of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. By 3 September 1988, the anti-Kurd campaign ended, and all resistance had been crushed. These losses included more than 570 of the 1,000 remaining Iranian tanks, over 430 armored vehicles, 45 self-propelled artillery, 300 towed artillery pieces, and 320 antiaircraft guns. [56], Several Muslim organisations, lobbies and pressure groups exist such as Nasfat, MPAC Nigeria [57] and the Muslim Rights Concern. 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